Hao Zhang and Andy Hancock | 10th December 2024 | Policy Papers
The learning of Chinese Mandarin in schools in Scotland has expanded significantly since the launch of the Scottish Government's ambitious policy, Language learning in Scotland: a 1+2 approach in 2012.
The growth in learning Mandarin has mainly been due to educational cooperation between China and Scotland. This promotion follows similar patterns in the expansion of learning Mandarin in schools across the UK and internationally.
The 1+2 Strategy should have been fully embedded into all Scottish schools by August 2021, but the implementation programme has been delayed by COVID-19 and a variety of other constraints, including a paucity of language teachers.
Currently there is uncertainty surrounding the operational lifespan and funding sources of the language policy.
Research evidence conducted in two Mandarin classes in two different mainstream primary schools has demonstrated the importance of the interdependence and interconnected policy spaces between the 1+2 Approach and the national Curriculum for Excellence (CfE) and how these national policies shape teaching practices.
We argue that the teaching of Mandarin must be placed within a broader view of teaching and learning all languages supported by a national framework for development, workforce planning and research-informed curriculum design and teaching approaches.
Policy Contexts
Scotland’s linguistic makeup is shaped by its historical multilingualism and political shifts post-devolution. Despite this rich heritage, misconceptions about monolingualism and language learning persist, impacting the prioritisation and funding of language provision in schools. The historical context includes the fluctuating support for Gaelic and Scots, languages that have experienced varying degrees of promotion and neglect over centuries. Post-devolution, there has been a renewed interest in these languages, reflecting Scotland’s evolving national identity.
The Scottish Government’s ambitious 1+2 Approach language policy, launched in 2012, was designed to bring Scotland in line with other language education policies in schools in many European countries. The model aims to ensure that every child has the opportunity to learn a first additional language from Primary 1 (4-5 years of age), and a second additional language by Primary 5 (8–9 years of age). This provision continues until learners reach the end of Secondary 3 (13–14 years of age). The policy aspiration is that every child and young person will be efficient in at least one foreign language and be able to communicate competently in another language.
Political ideologies and societal attitudes significantly shape schools' choices regarding language offerings (Hancock, 2014). Surveys conducted in Scotland reveal that the majority of the population believe that learning a language other than English is important. The Language Strategy does not prioritise the languages on offer, but the L2 must be a language taught to the level of a National Qualification (recognised by the Scottish Qualifications Authority). Meanwhile, L3 has fewer constraints, as it can be any language, such as British Sign Language (BSL) or home, heritage and community languages (HHCLs). Despite the Language Strategy’s impressive goals, the enhanced provision has seen the L2 and L3 languages in mainstream schools remain dominated by a narrow range of Western European languages, such as French, Spanish and German.
The promotion of languages within the scope of 1+2 Language Strategy is also determined by changing ideologies mediated through political and economic considerations. The Scottish Government report explicitly states that ‘account should be taken of [...] languages of the strong economies of the future’ . This can be illustrated by China’s re-emerging position of strength within global economics and trading systems and subsequent demands, within both business and political circles, for Chinese to be taught in schools to support Scotland’s commercial activity with China.
As a result, Mandarin has been established as a popular modern foreign language in Scotland. This expansion in learning Mandarin has mainly been due to the educational partnership between China (Centre for Language Education and Cooperation) and Scotland (Scotland's National Centre for Languages). Provision includes 20 secondary hubs across 20 of Scotland’s 32 councils, 17 councils with 17 primary hubs, and one specialist Confucius Classroom Hub with Scottish Opera. The schools are also supported by 66 Chinese Exchange Teachers for the 2024/25 session alongside partner schools in China. Furthermore, private efforts, such as the Swire Chinese Language Foundation, have offered funding to support teachers of Mandarin. This promotion of Mandarin reflects similar patterns of expansion in the UK, particularly with initiatives like the Mandarin Excellence Programme in England, and internationally.
Scotland is characterised by an increasingly diverse and multilingual school population, but the learning of HHCLs is confined to complementary schools organised by language community members. This provision operates in the evenings and weekends which, while crucial, means that the linguistic resources of pupils is not having an impact on the language learning ethos in mainstream schools (Hancock & Hancock, 2019).
The interconnected nature of language education policies and the school curriculum is clearly illustrated by the integration of the 1+2 Approach with the national Curriculum for Excellence (CfE) in Scotland. The CfE, introduced in 2010, provides a comprehensible and flexible curriculum for learners aged 3 to 18, promoting a rounded approach to education. Rather than following a prescriptive curriculum with attainment targets, the CfE emphasises learner outcomes and experiences for each subject, including modern languages, giving educators the freedom to tailor their teaching methods. A key feature is the focus on interdisciplinary learning, encouraging connections between subjects. This approach ensures that language learning is not treated as an isolated subject, but allows teachers to explore the social, cultural, and historical contexts of a language in a meaningful way. By doing so, the CfE aims to nurture both language competence and a broader understanding of global citizenship. Moreover, the CfE’s guidelines on language choice and classroom routines often overlap with the 1+2 Approach’s directives (Zhang, 2023). For instance, the CfE encourages teachers to incorporate the target language into everyday classroom activities, such as taking the attendance register or counting.
The CfE’s outcomes and experiences for modern languages provides practical standards for assessing students’ knowledge about language, and intercultural and communicative competence. These benchmarks are designed to guide educators in implementing the 1+2 Approach effectively, ensuring that students achieve specific listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in their L2 and L3 by the end of primary and secondary education.
The 1+2 Approach, instigated by the Scottish National Party (SNP), was conceived as a national strategy to be realised over two parliamentary terms with a plan for full implementation by August 2021. However, the timeline was initially extended to August 2022, in part due to the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. As of 2024 the policy is in limbo, with uncertainty surrounding the language policy's operational lifespan and funding sources.
There are a number of reasons why the implementation goal was not fully realised, including: a lack of a national strategy regarding Initial Teacher Education (ITE) and career-long professional learning; difficulty in training sufficient staff to ensure progression and depth of understanding across the seven years of primary school; teachers perceived lack of confidence and communicative competence (Crichton, 2018). Furthermore, the Scottish Government devolved funding for the 1+2 policy to each of the 32 local education authorities. Whilst this allowed for local decision-making to reflect diverse local circumstances, it also resulted in fragmented language provision and support structures. For example, there have been questions regarding progression, as local authorities or schools decided which additional languages are taught. A further illustration of this lack of joined-up provision is national resources have been developed for the learning of Polish and Arabic in primary schools, but these two languages are not included as one of the ten languages awarded by the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA). As a result, it is highly unlikely that these two languages will be taught at secondary school.
Challenges and Constraints
Although Scotland has led the way in the UK by adopting the 1+2 model, there are a number of challenges and constraints which the Language Strategy has faced since its inception.
The most recent survey of provision conducted in 2022 shows only 69% of mainstream primary schools and 70% of mainstream secondary schools successfully provided full first additional Language (L2) entitlement. The full L2 entitlement in primary school means that L2 is provided continuously from P1 to P7, whereas the full entitlement in secondary school means that L2 is provided continuously from S1 to S3. Additional information shows 29% of mainstream primary schools and 30% of mainstream secondary schools provided partial L2 entitlement. The partial L2 entitlement means that L2 is not taught continuously from P1 to P7 and from S1 to S3. When it comes to the second additional language (L3) entitlement, the figures appear even less encouraging in mainstream primary schools, only 64% of which fully commit to L3 entitlement.
Although the provision is marginally more encouraging in secondary schools, a lack of teacher availability, fewer subjects taken for examination post qualification reform in 2013, and competition from other subjects such as the current interest in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines has squeezed out some languages in a crowded curriculum and the potential to build on the experiences of learning two languages at primary schools.
This national picture of policy implementation in Scotland above is based on school self-reports and it remains unclear to what degree the language is actually taught, for instance, how many hours per week children are taught for L2/L3, and to what extent learning outcomes are achieved. For example, surveys show that in 2020-21 Mandarin was taught in 150 primary schools and 34 secondary schools as a L3. However, research evidence reveals L3 provision in primary schools can be stretched with some peripatetic teachers of Mandarin providing only brief language and cultural awareness sessions rather than language learning lessons (Zhang, 2023).
The absence of formal examinations of subjects being taught in Scotland until S4 (15-16 years of age) offers considerable space and teacher autonomy within the language classroom, particularly in primary schools. To investigate this phenomenon research was conducted with two Mandarin teachers in two different schools. Methods included interviews, participant observation and a corpus of classroom talk over a 12-week period using Conversation Analysis (Zhang, 2024). This research builds on Bonacina-Pugh's notion of ‘practiced language policy’ which emphasizes the in-practice norms that emerge and govern in language education settings. The findings reveal how educators drew upon diverse cultural approaches to teaching and learning, impacting their pedagogical practices and the different uses of the target language in the classroom. This research highlights the complex interplay between language policy and classroom dynamics. At the same time, it illustrates how teachers’ practice is a result of the lack of pedagogical guidance in the 1+2 Approach and teacher autonomy emphasised in CfE.
Implications for Policy and Practice
In this section we consider the implications for future policy and practice to enhance the development of the 1+2 Approach and language teaching in general. These recommendations should also be read as inclusive of all languages and supportive of all aspiring multilingual learners across the UK. At the same time there are some situations where Mandarin is a special case requiring different solutions.
In Scotland there is a pressing need to address the uncertainties surrounding the future of language education policy. A revised national strategy with clear guidelines and assurances regarding the continuation and support of language teaching with appropriate investment is imperative to ensure long-term stability and effectiveness.
In order in provide a strong foundation and embed the 1+2 model in primary schools a number of workforce issues need to be resolved. A recurring theme is practitioners’ concerns about their lack of confidence in teaching languages and their limited language proficiency. If the quality and quantity of lessons is to be improved, then more emphasis needs to be placed on extensive career-long professional learning and Universities’ role in Initial Teacher Education (ITE). This in turn would upskill primary teachers who are well placed to use interdisciplinary approaches and integrate language learning into daily routines.
Moreover, strategic thinking is required to ensure continuity and progression of language learning from P1 to P7 and carried on into secondary schools to make sure languages taught in primary can be carried forward in the associated secondary school. For some languages, such as Mandarin, the transition is more acute because the provision is inconsistent compared to the popular European languages. That is, pupils with prior learning of Mandarin at primary school may only be offered European languages at their secondary school. On the other hand, the Confucius hub system which deploys peripatetic teachers from secondary schools to feeder primary schools is an attempt to support progression and pipelines in learning.
Acknowledging the intricate and mutually reinforcing relationship between language education policies and the broader educational framework is essential. Policies should be devised and implemented with a comprehensive understanding of their intersection with and support for overarching curriculum objectives, ensuring a coherent and integrated approach to language learning within the educational system. In the Scottish context, this principle is exemplified by the synergy between language education policies, such as the 1+2 Approach, and the Curriculum for Excellence (CfE).
At the same time, the curricula should align with broader national and supranational frameworks, such as the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) to ensure consistency, coherence, and comparability in language education standards across various jurisdictions. This dual approach will promote plurilingual citizens and intercultural understanding. However, there are challenges in matching Mandarin to the CEFR, which is specifically designed for European languages, due to fundamental differences in linguistic structures, writing systems, and cultural contexts. Preliminary steps, like the European Benchmarking Chinese Language (EBCL) Can-do Statements at A1-A2+ levels, attempt to bridge this gap. While promising, further adaptation is needed to ensure comprehensive evaluation of Mandarin proficiency.
Scotland has a history of finding innovative solutions to a shortage of language teachers such as the e-Sgoil programme for online teaching and learning of Gaelic across the remote Highlands and Islands. However, it should be noted that Gaelic teaching is very different from foreign language teaching, in that Gaelic is the first language of many people on the Western Isles. Previous studies have shown that online and shared learning spaces have the potential to develop inclusive environments which create opportunities for learners and educators to enact agency and engage in inquiry. For example, Coyle (2013) demonstrated that digital mediating tools used to connect learning spaces created opportunities for students to take ownership of their language learning environment through reflection and identification of moments of 'successful learning' in dialogue with educators. These online learning platforms can also broaden the reach of language teaching by including students from various geographical locations (Hancock & Hancock, 2024) as the case of the teaching of Latin in one Scottish local authority demonstrates.
Specifically, in Scotland, the scarcity of qualified Mandarin teachers has been addressed by implementing live online Mandarin lessons. The Discovering China programme spearheaded by the Confucius Institute for Scotland’s Schools (CISS) and Scotland’s National Centre for Languages (SCILT), offers a model for delivering high-quality Mandarin teaching using Microsoft Teams within the Glow platform to connect learners from multiple schools with GTCS-registered Mandarin teachers. Each interdisciplinary lesson brings together learners of the same level from several schools, fostering a collaborative learning environment. Programmes of this type with resources, can support teachers so that learning outcomes are consistent with the national educational standards at both primary and secondary stages. That said, it depends on the learning context and how programmes are interpreted and applied by teachers to suit the needs of the learners.
A more inclusive and strategic approach to language planning needs to take place in order to make greater use of the multilingual resources that already exist within schools and language communities. This would involve addressing the disparities between local languages, modern foreign languages (MFLs), and the home, heritage and community languages of migrant communities. A more cohesive and equitable language education policy can be fostered through partnerships between the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS), local authorities, complementary schools, and mainstream schools (refer to Hancock & Hancock, 2019).
Conclusion
Despite the ambitious 1+2 language education policy there is evidence that the teaching and learning of languages in schools is not happening in a consistent and sustained manner across Scotland due to the challenges of inadequate funding and a lack of strategic workforce planning. By enhancing provision and fostering innovative teaching practices, Scotland can continue to lead in language education and ensure that language learning is not just an outlying activity but an integral component of pupils’ educational experience as they participate in a rapidly changing globalised world. It has been argued that effectively embedding language education policies within a comprehensive educational framework can also enhance language teaching methodologies and align with broader educational goals as exemplified by aligning the 1+2 Approach with the Curriculum for Excellence in Scotland. However, political and societal ideologies influence language choices in schools, creating both opportunities and constraints. In the wake of Brexit, the UK must also cultivate a renewed public consciousness about the benefits of learning languages other than English to ensure its future prosperity socially, culturally, and economically.
References
Hancock, Andrew. 2014. ‘Language Education Policy in Multilingual Scotland: Opportunities, Imbalances and Debates.’ Language Problems and Language Planning, 38(2), 167–191, https://doi.org/10.1075/lplp.38.2.04han.
Hancock, Andrew and Jonathan Hancock. 2019. ‘Scotland’s Language Communities and the 1+2 Language Strategy.’ Languages, Society and Policy, https://www.lspjournal.com/post/scotland-s-language-communities-and-the-1-2-language-strategy [accessed 2 December 2024].
Hancock, Jonathan and Andrew Hancock. 2024. ‘School Leaders as Projective Agents: Online Spaces for Heritage Languages During COVID-19.’ Current Issues in Language Planning, 25(5), 531–552, https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2024.2309777.
Zhang, Hao. 2023. Language Policy in the Scottish Primary Classroom: The Case of Mandarin Language Teaching. PhD in Education, The University of Edinburgh.
Zhang, Hao. 2024. ‘Pedagogy and Practiced Language Policies: The Case of Mandarin Language Teaching in Scottish Primary Schools,’ in Language Policy as Practice: Advancing the Empirical Turn in Language Policy Research, ed. by Florence Bonacina-Pugh (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55783-5_4.
Cite this article
Zhang, Hao and Andy Hancock. 2024. ‘Beyond the 1+2 Approach in Scotland’s Language Policy Landscape: Implications for Policy and Practice for Mandarin and Other Languages.’ Languages, Society and Policy. https://www.lspjournal.com/post/beyond-the-1-2-approach-in-scotland-s-language-policy-landscape-implications-for-policy-and-practic.
About the authors
Dr Hao Zhang holds a Ph.D. in Education from the University of Edinburgh and is an Assistant Recognition Manager at Oxford University Press. His research focuses on language education policy, specifically the 1+2 Approach in Scotland. [@ZhangHao_Edin]
Dr Andy Hancock is an Honorary Fellow at the University of Edinburgh, having previously been a Senior Lecturer and Director of Postgraduate Studies at the School of Education. He has researched and published extensively on a range of topics including complementary schooling, language policy in Scotland and linguistic landscapes.
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