Kate Lightfoot, Maksi Kozińska, and Michelle Sheehan | 26th November 2024| Policy Papers
Over 20% of school pupils speak a language other than English at home. Drawing on the untapped linguistic potential of these speakers of home, heritage and community languages (HHCL) is one way of addressing the UK languages crisis.
Polish, the most widely spoken ‘main’ language in England and Wales after English and Welsh, is not generally taught in mainstream schools in the UK, but via a network of over 180 Polish Saturday Schools
Despite increasing entries for GCSE Polish, and high proportions of high grades in formal examinations, supplementary school teachers face a range of challenges, such as lack of access to resources and difficulties entering students for examination via mainstream schools.
French is the 12th most widely spoken ‘main’ language, after English and Welsh, meaning that it is not uncommon for a HHCL speaker of French to study and be examined in their HHCL in a mainstream school setting.
HHCL French speakers should be considered assets in the classroom and should be supported to achieve qualifications in their HHCL. With many HHCL speakers reporting having benefited from formal instruction in their HHCL, particularly in writing, it is crucial that their oral proficiency is not considered indicative of their overall proficiency.
Ensuring appropriate provision of resources, recognising supplementary school teachers’ expertise, and acknowledging the emotional ties students may have to their HHCL and identity will contribute to improving the state of HHCL education in the UK, which will, in turn, contribute to enhancing UK language learning.
Introduction
The most recent Schools Census reconfirms the multilingual nature of UK state schools and nurseries, with over 20% of pupils speaking a language other than English at home (Department for Education 2024). At the same time, there have been repeated warnings of a growing languages ‘crisis’ in the UK, with ever decreasing numbers of pupils choosing to study a language at GCSE and A-level (see Bowler 2020 among others). In this paper, we argue that one way of addressing the ongoing issue with language learning must be to harness the untapped linguistic potential of multilingual pupils, whether that means enabling them to develop literacy and gain a formal qualification in their home, heritage and community language (HHCL) or by acknowledging the pre-existing skills of these pupils when it comes to studying further languages. At present, HHCL speakers are often overlooked in discussions of the low uptake of languages, and uptake of HHCL at post-compulsory level remains poor (Fahim, Kim & Eppler 2024; see also Fahim 2023). There are several reasons for this, including the availability of language learning provision and whether language study is viewed as a legitimate option when other, often STEM, subjects are viewed as having more value (see Archer et al. 2012).
In this contribution, we address the different but notable challenges and opportunities facing speakers of Polish and French, two Indo-European languages which, for historical and political reasons, have very different status in UK education. We begin our contribution by considering Polish, a widely spoken HHCL not generally taught in mainstream schools, with GCSE and A-level Polish as a case study. Following this, we consider the very different challenges (and opportunities) facing HHCL taught as a second language in UK schools, with a focus on French. We conclude with recommendations to improve the state of language learning in the UK, focusing particularly on school-age speakers of HHCL. Throughout the article, we use the term ‘HHCL speaker’ to refer to those people who grow up speaking a language at home which is not a majority societal language of the country they live in.
Case Study 1: Community languages not taught in mainstream schools - Polish
The 2021 Census confirms that Polish is the most commonly spoken ‘main’ language in England and Wales after English and Welsh 2021 Census. Polish is, however, not generally taught in mainstream schools in either country. Rather, it is taught in supplementary schools throughout the UK, usually on Saturdays (so-called ‘Polish Saturday Schools’). Some such schools are affiliated to the Polish Educational Society, a charity which runs an examination centre as well as supporting the establishment of Polish supplementary schools. The Polish government provides data on over 180 active Polish Saturday Schools in the UK and 29 mainstream schools which enrolled in the Polish Embassy programme called Polish After-Schools Clubs.
Polish language students in the UK can take GCSE and A-level exams, provided by AQA, with GCSE Polish growing in popularity. Polish was the most popular language taken at GCSE level in 2019, after the ‘big three’ (French, German and Spanish), with nearly 6,000 entries. According to AQA, the number of candidates taking GCSE Polish has increased even further, reaching over 7,000 students. In 2015, the exam board providing GCSE Polish produced a standardised structure of the GCSE exams for all Modern Foreign Languages (MFLs). This decision facilitated cooperation between Polish Saturday Schools and state schools, as MFL teachers and exam officers in mainstream schools were already familiar with the technicalities of entering and administering language examinations, even if Polish was not specifically offered at their schools. However, recent changes to the subject content for French, German, and Spanish have left the fate of ‘other’ languages uncertain, highlighting a disparity in how policymakers treat HHCL examinations.
This inconsistency is also evident at A-level. Students of the ‘big three’ languages can take two exams at AS and A-level. In contrast, Polish learners only have an A-level component, consisting of three papers lasting seven hours. Additionally, students taking exams in languages other than the ‘big three’ do not have a speaking component, which is significant given that HHCL speakers generally have strong oral skills. The reasons behind these differences are almost certainly based on practical issues such as the availability of examiners, but they have negative consequences for uptake (Kozińska 2021). Following the standardisation of the examination specification for Polish GCSE in line with other MFL GCSEs, the number of entrants had been growing. Conversely, the removal of the AS component for Polish and the changing structure of the examination has coincided with a decrease in A-level entries (from a stable level of above 1000 to only 731 in 2023) (Kozińska 2022).
There are disadvantages associated with teaching Polish outside of mainstream education. No Polish Saturday School is an examination centre, meaning that teachers cannot access essential teaching resources, such as past papers (Kozińska 2022). Kozińska (2022) also notes that with the introduction of the new A-level specification, Polish supplementary teachers were only given one set of specimen papers and the specification to plan and prepare their students for the examination. Furthermore, after each examination session, teachers who do not work in an examination centre must wait approximately a year to see the examination papers. This lack of understanding of the educational landscape further exacerbates the challenges teachers and students face in HHCL education.
Since most Polish language teaching occurs outside mainstream education, some mainstream schools are reluctant to enter students for formal examinations (see Kozińska 2024: 11-12). This was exacerbated during the pandemic when examinations could not take place. Fewer students were awarded qualifications based on predicted grades in 2020 (a drop of 47%) and centre assessment grades in 2021 (a drop of 49%). Young and White 2024 reported that Polish teachers were keen to provide the appropriate evidence for the examination centres but were refused access or did not know where to find the appropriate guidance. In some cases teacher-assessed grades were rejected by examination centres due to a lack of trust in a particular teacher's abilities and/or the absence of previous cooperation (see Burman and Miles 2018, on the undermining of supplementary teachers’ expertise). This is despite the fact that these same teachers are responsible for the exam preparation of the majority of students taking GCSE and A-level examinations pre- and post-pandemic. The examination results also demonstrate a high proficiency in Polish, with 83.1% of candidates achieving a grade 7 or higher in GCSE Polish in both 2022 and 2023 sessions.
We argue, therefore, that policymakers must consider the specific landscape of HHCL education in Polish and provide appropriate opportunities, training, and access to resources for teachers in Polish Saturday Schools (as noted by Ayres-Bennett and Carruthers 2018). Supplementary school teachers also need a voice in policy making. Given that Polish is so widely spoken in the UK, it should be considered whether the language can be further integrated into mainstream languages education. Such inclusion would enhance the support for HHCL education and better integrate these teachers and students into the examination process.
Case Study 2: Home languages taught as second languages - French
According to the 2021 Census, French is the 12th most widely spoken ‘main’ language in England and Wales, excluding English and Welsh. A crucial difference between Polish and French as languages in the UK context concerns their status in schools. According to Collen 2020, French is the most widely taught MFL, and, in many schools, it is the only language offered. Given that language study is compulsory in key stages two and three, it is therefore not uncommon that HHCL speakers of French are required to study their HHCL in a school setting. Polish and French also differ in terms of their perceived prestige, with Long & Danechi reporting French as being considered high prestige compared to other UK HHCLs, such as Polish.
Using survey data from 166 teachers with experience of teaching French to HHCL speakers in the mainstream classroom, and interview data from a sub-sample of survey respondents (N=10), HHCL speakers aged 11-19 (N=10) and parents of HHCL speakers (N=10), Lightfoot (2022) examines the opportunities and challenges associated with HHCL speakers of French in the French classroom and argues that involving HHCL speakers in French lessons and permitting them to achieve a qualification in their HHCL is a worthwhile endeavour.
Lightfoot (2022) found that the presence of HHCL speakers often improves the classroom experience for teachers and learners, as HHCL speakers bring languages to life and give confidence to their peers. HHCL speakers, however, are sometimes bored in class and teachers can struggle to provide them with appropriate work whilst meeting the needs of the rest of the class, with many citing the time-consuming nature of sourcing or creating materials. Six of the HHCL speakers interviewed studied French as a main subject, often in the classroom with their peers, with varying levels of tuition and differentiation.
All of the HHCL speakers in Lightfoot (2022) achieved high grades in their French GCSE. Whilst the GCSE as an ‘easy win’ narrative is often found in discourse relating to HHCLs (see Taylor & Zanini 2017), participants noted that examinations require them to use their HHCL in unfamiliar ways. One participant reflected:
‘In year eight, when the vast majority of the curriculum is spent trying to get you familiar with the language, I could have just fell asleep in all the lessons [...] But [in] year ten and year eleven, I absolutely had to actually take part in the stuff about grammar, spelling and extended writing, I'd never done it before in my life. So I absolutely had to pay attention and learn and revise.’
This reflection on written language was shared by other participants, with another noting that they ‘never learned to write French properly’ and that ‘French is so complicated when it’s written down’. Whilst the HHCL speakers generally felt more confident in their spoken language, they noted that the oral exam required them to alter their French usage to meet exam requirements such as speaking formally and eliminating slang, using a broader vocabulary, and using sophisticated grammar such as the subjunctive.
Certain teachers in Lightfoot (2022) recounted that senior leaders subscribed to the myth that HHCL speakers are fully competent in their HHCL and do not require education in it, sometimes discouraging them from language study, and perpetuating the idea that their HHCL qualifications would not be valued in university applications. Lightfoot (2022) recommends that teachers and senior leaders must appreciate that a HHCL speaker’s oral proficiency is not indicative of their overall language proficiency. The implication for teachers is that HHCL speakers may require support with other language skills, such as writing. For senior leaders, it is crucial to understand that HHCL speakers are not getting their qualification ‘for free’ and that there is indeed effort on the part of the HHCL speakers - albeit different from that required from second language learners - to achieve their qualification.
Negotiating a multilingual identity can be challenging, with some participants having concealed their Francophone identities in the past - one of whom recounted saying ‘I don’t want to be French, I want to be normal!’. Because of these concerns, teachers should consult with the student regarding whether they are happy for their peers to know about their multilingualism and agree on the parameters of how the HHCL speaker’s knowledge may be drawn upon in class. The HHCL speakers in Lightfoot (2022) were generally happy to assist their teacher. Some teacher interviewees viewed the experience as character building, as the student is given the opportunity to act as a role model, whereas others felt this should be done sparingly due to parental expectations (in an independent school) and the possibility for the HHCL speaker to ‘ruin the dynamic of the task’ if they switch to English whilst assisting the teacher.
Relatedly, certain participants noted that they were different to ‘real French people’ in terms of their language abilities. Despite these concerns, their peers were impressed by their language abilities, and viewed them as an asset in the classroom. Being viewed as an expert in one’s HHCL can help HHCL speakers grow in confidence in their multilingual identity. One survey respondent in Lightfoot (2022) noted:
‘You can help them gain confidence in their native language, as they often feel less confident (they feel they are supposed to know how to speak, listen, read and write but actually do not always find it easy). You can give them a sense of pride and achievement in their subject by confirming their multilingualism to them.’
Although this quote suggests that teaching a HHCL speaker is a rewarding experience, teachers reported a range of views. Interviewees and survey respondents noted the additional workload associated with effective differentiation for HHCL speakers and the associated parental pressure. They also shared that the presence of a HHCL speaker in the classroom can be intimidating for less experienced teachers, who may feel self-conscious of their own language skills. The implication is that the student-teacher classroom dynamic must be managed with sensitivity, as explained by one interviewee:
'Sometimes quite near the start of the year, I have to say to them, ‘Okay, it's absolutely fine to correct me, but think about how you're doing it because it's really important that the other students don't think I'm rubbish. They have to believe that I know.’’
On the other hand, teachers must recognise that the HHCL is part of the HHCL speaker’s identity, often accompanied with strong emotional ties to the language. Sensitivity is therefore required when teachers give feedback on HHCL speakers’ language. One teacher explained, ‘I’m not really telling them about their language, I’m telling them how to pass an exam’ (see also Cummins 2005).
In summary, the benefits outweigh the challenges of accommodating a HHCL speaker in the language classroom. HHCL speakers have the opportunity to develop their language in new ways; the language is brought to life for learners, who view the HHCL speaker as an aspirational figure in the classroom, and teachers can draw on them as a linguistic resource in lessons, which is particularly beneficial given the ever-decreasing number of language assistants.
Policy Recommendations
An increased focus on school-age speakers of HHCL could make a major contribution to improving the state of language learning in the UK. The number of pupils taking GCSE and A-level qualifications in languages other than French, German and Spanish fell in 2020 during the Covid-19 pandemic but has been recovering since. It is gratifying to see that the number taking a GCSE in HHCL rose substantially in 2024 (to 43,121), a number which is significantly higher than pre-pandemic levels. However, uptake at A-level has not recovered so well. In 2024, only 6429 gained an HHCL A-level qualification, significantly fewer than the 9673 who did so in 2018. Whilst there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach to HHCL education, we make the following recommendations relating to the promotion of HHCLs in the UK:
To exam boards:
Make available appropriate resources and training for HHCL teachers (e.g. access to past papers).
Engage supplementary school teachers in examination development to guarantee culturally inclusive assessments.
To providers of initial teacher training and continuing professional development:
Recognise and celebrate UK multilingualism and the positive benefits it affords to the languages classroom as well as the distinct strategies required to teach HHCLs in the mainstream classroom.
To organisations that support MFL education:
Improve efficiency and flexibility in the organisation of speaking exams by maintaining — through pre-existing non-profit organisations and/or established networks of supplementary teachers — up-to-date databases of available examiners.
To mainstream schools:
Recognise and utilise supplementary school teachers’ expertise in the execution of formal examinations (such as arrangement of speaking examination).
Utilise existing networks to source examiners for speaking examinations to avoid conflating speakers of a language with those who are qualified language teachers.
Better integrate HHCLs and mainstream language teaching (notably by collecting data about pupil attendance at supplementary schools and recognising pupil achievement, also by permitting free use of premises).
Make a greater effort to facilitate entry of their pupils for HHCL qualifications.
Better acknowledge HHCL speakers’ emotional ties to their heritage language and reflections on their multilingual identity in classroom practice, for example:
o When giving feedback, teachers should explain that their feedback relates to the language required for formal qualification in the language and is not a reflection on HHCL speakers’ language usage beyond the classroom.
o Teachers should be mindful of the context of HHCL speakers’ immigration and appreciate that they may be reluctant to participate in certain topics or share about their background.
o Teachers should consult with the HHCL speaker at the beginning of the academic year about their needs, expectations, and student-teacher dynamic. This would include the HHCL speaker deciding whether they would be happy to act as a language assistant and the teacher explaining if, or how, they would be happy to be corrected on their language usage. Teachers must remember that not all HHCL speakers will be happy to be singled out in class and may prefer to join in with their peers.
Ensure a clear understanding of the difference between language competence and literacy: HHCL speakers’ oral proficiency is often not indicative of their overall proficiency in the HHCL and that there is still value in a HHCL speaker obtaining a qualification in their HHCL.
References
Fahim, Zara, Yuni Kim and Eva Eppler. 2024. ‘Diverse Tongues, Unheard Voices: Barriers to Mainstream Uptake of Heritage Languages in England’, Research Intelligence, 158: 20-21. https://clie.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/2024-Fahim-Kim-Eppler.pdf.
Humphries, Emma, Janice Carruthers and Leanne Henderson. 2024. ‘Qualifications in Home Languages: Opportunities, Barriers and Policy Implications’, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2023.2288292 [accessed 11 July 2024].
Kozińska, Maksi. 2021. ‘Egzamin(y) z Języka Polskiego Jako Obcego Na Poziomie GCSE w Wielkiej Brytanii [Polish as a Foreign Language at the GCSE Examination Level in the UK]’, Języki Obce w Szkole, 3/2021: 55–62.
https://doi.org/10.47050/jows.2021.3.55-62 [accessed 27 March 2024].
Kozińska, Maksi. 2022. ‘Zrozumieć A-level Polish, czyli o angielskiej maturze z języka polskiego jako obcego [Understanding A-level in Polish: Exploring the English Equivalent of the Matura Exam Polish as a Foreign Language]’, Języki Obce w Szkole, 2/2022: 107–116. https://doi.org/10.47050/jows.2022.1.107-116 [accessed 27 March 2024].
Lightfoot, Katherine. 2022. Competence, Attitudes, and Education: A Study of Heritage French in the UK. [Doctoral Thesis, Anglia Ruskin University]. https://aru.figshare.com/articles/thesis/Competence_attitudes_and_education_a_study_of_heritage_French_in_the_UK/2376939 [accessed 26 March 2024].
Cite this article
Kozińska, Maksi, Lightfoot, Kate, and Sheehan, Michelle. 2024. ‘Community languages in the United Kingdom: the great potential of multilingualism’. Languages, Society and Policy.https://www.lspjournal.com/post/community-languages-in-the-united-kingdom-the-great-potential-of-multilingualism
About the authors
Michelle Sheehan is Professor of Linguistics at Newcastle University. She specialises primarily in comparative syntax with a particular focus on Romance languages including standard national languages as well as heritage and minority varieties, but she has a secondary long-term interest in the status of linguistics as a discipline and how it relates to language teaching and assessment. She is currently PI of the Linguistics in MFL project and a Leverhulme Research Grant on Romance Causation and Perception (CauRPe). (@mishee54)
Kate Lightfoot is a Research Fellow at Born in Bradford, working on Age of Wonder: Teenage Stories – a qualitative longitudinal project following the lives of 100 young people from early adolescence to early adulthood. Kate’s PhD focused on heritage French speakers in the UK, with a particular emphasis on how children learn their home languages, how they and their parents negotiate their bilingual identities, and the experiences of heritage French speakers and their teachers in the mainstream French classroom. (@_katelightfoot)
Maksi Kozińska is a PhD candidate at Anglia Ruskin University, studying Polish heritage speakers in England. She has over a decade of experience teaching Polish, serves as an examiner and educator across multiple institutions, and is an external expert to Ofqual. Maksi has been honoured with the Medal of the Commission of National Education by the Minister of Education and Science of Poland for her contributions to education. (@MaksiKozinska)
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